The antimicrobial activity and resistance evolution of nanomaterials: a review

The pervasive threat of microbial infections, compromising human health, compounded by the rising incidence of multidrug-resistant bacteria, has underscored the urgent need for the development of innovative antimicrobial strategies. Nanomaterials have garnered substantial attention as alternative antimicrobial materials, owing to their remarkable chemical and physical properties. Despite the prominent bactericidal activity of these nanomaterials, some studies have proposed otherwise, suggesting that certain nanomaterials can potentially trigger the evolution of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Therefore, it is urgent to elucidate the underlying mechanism governing the dual characteristics of antimicrobial nanomaterials. This Review commences by providing an overview of the antimicrobial properties of three distinct nanomaterials. Subsequently, it delves into the primary inactivation mechanisms and analyzes the physicochemical factors influencing their antimicrobial activity. Concurrently, the impact of molecular initiation events on AMR evolution via nanomicrobe interactions is systematically elucidated, enabling the proposal of four guiding design principles to mitigate AMR evolution.